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podcast transcript
In 46 BC, after 12 years of travel, Julius Caesar finally returned to his hometown, Rome.
A lot had changed since he was last there. The entire Roman system had been overturned, and he was now the man at the top.
To celebrate his homecoming, he did something he had never done before or since. He did not simply win for his own glory. He has held it four times.
For some in Rome it was the greatest thing they had ever seen. For others, their worst fears were confirmed.
Learn more about Julius Caesar’s Quadruple Triumph and the controversy surrounding it in this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily.
One of the greatest and most amazing events in the ancient world occurred in Rome in 46 BC. For 10 or 14 days, Julius Caesar, the returning general, former consul, and former legal dictator, celebrated the victories of the past decade with not one, not two, not three, but four victories.
I have written several previous episodes covering several of Caesar’s achievements, including the Roman victories and the Battle of Alesia.
To be honored with victory in the Roman world was truly a feat. In some ways it was the ultimate achievement for anyone in the Roman Republic. In a culture that hated and feared the idea of kings, Rome once showed respect to its victorious generals by treating them like kings.
These were state-sponsored ceremonial processions throughout Rome where victorious generals publicly displayed their booty, prisoners, and accomplishments and earned the respect of the Senate and people.
Victories were rare. On average, it occurs once every 1-2 years. In rare cases, someone may achieve a second victory.
There were rules to follow. The victorious general had to request victory from the Senate and could not enter Rome until victory was achieved.
Let us now take a quick look at what happened to Caesar in the years leading up to his victory.
In 59 BC, he served as consul for a year while being part of an informal alliance known as the First Triumvirate, along with Pompey and Crassus.
After assuming the consulship he was appointed governor of Cisalpine and Illyricum in Gaul, and soon his command was expanded to include the crossings of Gaul.
He used this opportunity and the legal immunity that came with it to conquer Gaul, modern-day France. Although none of these were approved by the Senate, they were very popular among Rome’s plebeians and made some members of the elite very uneasy.
The senators wanted to prosecute Caesar for his crimes in Gaul. Caesar enjoyed immunity while serving as governor, but his term was nearing its end. He wanted to run for consulship again and gain immunity, but to do so he would have to return to Rome and give up his position as governor.
This led him to cross the Rubicon with his legions in 49 BC, marking the beginning of the Civil War that ended at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.
However, he did not return to Rome immediately after winning the war. He went to Egypt to resolve important issues, then to Pontus, in modern-day northern Türkiye, and then to present-day Tunisia.
When he returned to Rome in 46 BC, he was the undisputed ruler of Rome.
With his enemies defeated, Caesar now wanted compensation. Victories were usually awarded to honor the achievements of a single campaign. However, Caesar fought throughout the Mediterranean and was away for so long that he claimed four victories.
You might be wondering why he couldn’t have just one big win. This almost certainly had something to do with the fact that his greatest rival and former son-in-law, Pompey Magnus, had achieved three victories in his career.
Other notable Romans, such as Marcus Claudius Marcellus and Gaius Marius, achieved three victories. Some of the greatest generals in the history of the Republic – Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Scipio Africanus, and Quintus Fabius Maximus – received only two.
Anyone who knows Roman numerals will know that IV > III.
There is much we know about Caesar’s victories, but there is also much we do not know. We don’t know the exact dates they happened. Most estimates place it sometime between July and September 46 BC. We don’t know how long they stayed, but it probably all happened over 10 to 14 days, with many games and banquets taking place.
46 BC was also called the Year of Confusion because Caesar moved Rome to the Julian calendar and added a month to the Roman calendar to correct for seasonal inconsistencies.
The first victory was the conquest of Gaul and the defeat of the Gaulish leader Vercingetorix. It was the least controversial of the four victories.
This victory was the most elaborate of the four, filled with massive amounts of booty, detailed battles and displays of territory, and long parades of prisoners from all over Gaul.
The centerpiece was the defeated Gallic leader Vercingetorix, who was held captive for several years and paraded through Rome before being executed at the end of the ceremony. Caesar rode in a chariot through cheering crowds, while soldiers marched behind him singing traditional, often mocking, songs.
The reason this victory wasn’t particularly controversial was that by this point, everyone knew the story. For many years Caesar sent dispatches from Gaul to Rome targeting Roman subjects. This became Caesar’s commentary, which is still studied today.
And defeating foreign enemies was the key to victory, and despite much controversy about how he did it, he did so.
The second victory commemorated Caesar’s victory in the War of Alexandria in Egypt, but had a very different tone from the celebrations in Gaul.
The procession emphasized Egypt’s exotic wealth and image and featured elaborate displays reminiscent of the Nile, royal glory, and the drama of a distant kingdom influenced by Rome.
The most prominent figure in the parade was Cleopatra VII’s sister and rival, Arsinoe IV, who opposed Caesar and was taken prisoner in chains. Her presence reportedly aroused the sympathy of the crowd, and unlike most high-profile prisoners, she subsequently escaped execution.
Cleopatra herself was in Rome at the time, but did not participate in the victory because having a son with Caesar was a very sensitive issue in Rome.
The reason this was controversial was because Rome actually gained nothing. Caesar did not conquer Egypt. He had just inserted himself into the midst of a dynastic feud and personally selected a new monarch.
While the victory celebrated Rome’s victory, it also revealed something more disturbing to many observers. That is, Caesar acted as a kingmaker in a foreign monarchy and projected a kind of personal, near-royal power that went beyond traditional republican norms.
Besides, the only reason he came to Egypt was to hunt down Pompey during the civil war, and the Romans would never give him victory for killing a Roman.
Under normal circumstances, victory would probably not have been guaranteed.
The third victory celebrated his victory at the Battle of Zela against Pharnaces II.
The Battle of Xela may not be familiar to most of you. The Battle of Gela, fought in Pontus, northern modern-day Turkey, in 47 BC pitted Julius Caesar against Pharnaces II, who had used the Roman civil war to regain territory. Caesar was in Egypt and went there.
Pharnaces attacked Caesar’s army, still entrenched on the high ground, but the Roman legions quickly rallied and counterattacked downhill, routing Caesar’s army in one decisive engagement.
Although the battle itself is largely forgotten, one thing that came out of it is known to almost everyone. One of the most famous sayings in the world is “veni, vidi, vici,” which means “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
The victory reflected the pace of the battle, with fewer lengthy scenes of conquest and greater emphasis on the decisiveness of the campaign, including displays of captured weapons and standards as well as Zela’s battlefield representations.
The most famous feature was a placard with the words “Veni, vidi, vici”, signaling how quickly the war was won and turning the victory into a statement about Caesar’s personal effectiveness and excellence.
Caesar’s quote was the most controversial part of the victory because it emphasized himself rather than Rome or his legions.
As with his other victories, he led his army through Rome, but the tone was almost brisk compared to his other victories, reinforcing the idea that this victory was achieved with surprising ease.
The fourth and final victory celebrated his victories in North Africa, culminating in the Battle of Thapsus against the armies of Metellus Scipio and King Juba I. Caesar sailed here after the Battle of Zela and defeated the remaining surviving senatorial forces at the Battle of Pharsalus.
The procession displayed trophies and images from African campaigns, including depictions of battles and exotic elements reminiscent of the region, such as animals and Numidian symbols. One of the most prominent figures in the parade was Juba’s young son, Juba II, who was taken prisoner and later raised in Rome.
This was very controversial. Caesar suffered, not to mention the death of the Romans, but it was inevitable. King Juba was merely an ally of the Romans against Caesar. It was here that Cato the Younger committed suicide rather than submit to Caesar. Links with foreign forces were persistent at best.
To complement his four victories, Julius Caesar organized a series of massive public events designed to dazzle the citizens of Rome with his generosity and the sheer scale of the spectacle.
The main feature of these celebrations was hosting large public banquets. Dining couches were placed throughout numerous urban areas, allowing thousands of Romans to eat at the same time. During these feasts, the public received wine, food, and sometimes cash gifts.
At the same time, he introduced extravagant games that included gladiatorial contests, theatrical performances, and even staged naval battles (naumachia) fought by thousands of participants in specially constructed basins.
There were also hunts featuring exotic animals and elaborate displays to showcase the wealth of his conquests. The scale was unprecedented, turning the victory into a city-wide celebration that not only strengthened Caesar’s image as a conqueror, but also as a provider for the Roman people.
Needless to say, the common people of Rome did not love Caesar before, but they do now.
But many members of the Senators class saw something very different.
Julius Caesar’s victories did not directly lead to his assassination, but they were instrumental in convincing many Romans that he had become dangerously powerful.
By achieving four victories in quick succession, Caesar condensed what would normally be a lifetime of honors into one overwhelming display, signaling his superiority over all other generals. More problematic was what that victory meant.
The victory blurred the distinction between Roman magistrates and monarchs. The exotic image of Egypt, his association with Cleopatra, and Caesar’s ever-growing list of honors, including his long-term and life-long dictatorship, led many senators to fear that he intended to become king in name only.
Less than two years later, discontent mounted and Caesar was stabbed to death in the Senate.
Although no one knew it at the time, Caesar’s quadruple victory and the celebrations surrounding it were a farewell of sorts to the Roman Republic.
